{"id":69307,"date":"2017-08-30T23:06:55","date_gmt":"2017-08-31T05:06:55","guid":{"rendered":"http:\/\/www.lankaweb.com\/news\/items\/?p=69307"},"modified":"2017-08-30T15:45:43","modified_gmt":"2017-08-30T22:45:43","slug":"corruption-in-the-ancient-world","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/www.lankaweb.com\/news\/items\/2017\/08\/30\/corruption-in-the-ancient-world\/","title":{"rendered":"Corruption in the ancient world\u00a0"},"content":{"rendered":"

Upali\u00a0Cooray<\/strong><\/em><\/span><\/h2>\n

It is not possible to compose\u00a0in detail an essay because the field is vast.\u00a0Therefore\u00a0this attempt is to highlight\u00a0a few random examples of corruption in the ancient world.<\/p>\n

Ancient man\u2019s\u00a0difference was,\u00a0during the evolutionary process from Ape to man his brain developed more than in other animals.His\u00a0instincts\u00a0as an animal was\u00a0selfish and required survival in a competitive primitive animal world. His becoming civilized was an imposition. What we call ancient civilizations were a necessity\u00a0to\u00a0bring law and order and other cultural advances. However even the\u00a0modern day\u00a0man carries these instincts covered under civility.<\/p>\n

Corruption is not a recent phenomenon. It has precisely been defined as a deviant human\u00a0behavior,\u00a0associated with the motivation of\u00a0private\u00a0gain at public expenseand, as\u00a0such, has persisted for centuries. Corruption promotes illegality,\u00a0unethicalism, subjectivity, inequity, injustice, waste, inefficiency and inconsistency in administrative conduct and\u00a0behavior.\u00a0\u00a0It destroys the moral fabric of society and erodes the faith of the common man in the legitimacy of the\u00a0politico-administrative set up.<\/p>\n

Ancient India<\/strong><\/p>\n

There are several references to the prevalence of official corruption in ancient India.\u00a0\u00a0But the text that provides an elaborate description of the menace is the\u00a0Arthashastra<\/em>\u00a0of\u00a0Kautilya. This sophisticated and detailed treatise on statecraft is essentially prescriptive or normative in nature, belonging to a genre of literature that suggests what the state ought to be and not what it really was. Nevertheless, one\u00a0should\u00a0realize\u00a0that norms are prescribed only when digressions or abnormalities exist. This confirms the fact that corruption was rampant enough in ancient India to necessitate expert advice on how to tame it.<\/p>\n

Kautilya\u00a0was a sagacious minister in the Kingdom of Chandragupta\u00a0Maurya(324\/321\u2012297<\/a>\u00a0Before the Common Era). He expressed his views on a range of issues including state, war, social structures, diplomacy, ethics, and politics. He believed that men are naturally fickle minded\u201d and are comparable to horses at\u00a0work\u00a0exhibitconstant change in their temper\u201d.\u00a0\u00a0This means that honesty is not a virtue that would remain consistent lifelong and the temptation to make easy gains through corrupt means can override the trait of honesty any time. Similarly, he compared the process of generation and collection of revenue (by officials) with honey or poison on the tip of the tongue, which becomes impossible not to taste.<\/p>\n

During\u00a0Mauryan\u00a0times, superintendents were the highest officials, a position they received for possessing the desired \u2018individual capacity\u2019 and adequate \u2018ministerial qualifications\u2019.\u00a0\u00a0Given the general emphasis of\u00a0Kautilya\u00a0on observing ethics and morality in relation to the functioning of a state, it seems the selection process would have involved not just a scrutiny of the educational attainments but also the right kind of aptitude for the job including traits of honesty and impartiality. This shows that despite the greatest care taken in recruiting officials, corrupt persons made their way into the system.<\/p>\n

Kautilya\u00a0was a great administrative thinker of his times. As he argued, too much of personal interaction or union among the higher executives leads to departmental goals being compromised and leads to corruption. This is because human emotions and\u00a0personal concerns act as impediments to the successful running of an administration, which is basically a rule-based impersonal affair. Similarly, dissension among executives when team effort is required results in a poor outcome.\u00a0Kautilya\u00a0suggested that the decline in output and corruption can be curbed by promoting professionalism at work. The superintendents should execute work with the subordinate officials such as accountants, writers, coin-examiners, treasurers and military officers in a team spirit.\u00a0\u00a0Such an effort creates a sense of belonging among members of the department who start identifying and\u00a0synchronizing\u00a0their goals with the larger goals of the\u00a0organization, thereby contributing to the eventual success of the state.<\/p>\n

Kautilya\u00a0provides a comprehensive list of 40 kinds of embezzlement. In all these cases, the concerned functionaries such as the treasurer\u00a0(nidhayaka)<\/em>, the prescriber\u00a0(nibandhaka)<\/em>, the receiver\u00a0(pratigrahaka)<\/em>,\u00a0the payer\u00a0(dayak)<\/em>, the person who caused the payment\u00a0(dapaka)<\/em>\u00a0and the ministerial servants\u00a0(mantri-vaiyavrityakara)<\/em>\u00a0were to be separately interrogated. In case any of these officials were to lie, their punishment was to be enhanced to the level meted out to the chief officer\u00a0(yukta)<\/em>\u00a0mainly responsible for the crime. After the enquiry, a public proclamation\u00a0(prachara)<\/em>\u00a0was to be made asking the common people to claim compensation in case they were aggrieved and suffered from the embezzlement.\u00a0\u00a0Thus,\u00a0Kautilya\u00a0was concerned about carrying the cases of fraud to their logical conclusion.<\/p>\n

The\u00a0Arthashastra\u00a0states that an increase in expenditure and lower revenue collection\u00a0(parihapan)<\/em>\u00a0was an indication of embezzlement of funds by corrupt officials.\u00a0\u00a0Kautilya\u00a0was sensitive enough to acknowledge the waste of\u00a0labor\u00a0of the workforce involved in generating\u00a0revenues.\u00a0\u00a0He defined\u00a0self-enjoyment\u00a0(upbhoga)<\/em>\u00a0by government functionaries as making use of or causing others to enjoy what belongs to the king.\u00a0\u00a0He was perhaps alluding to the current practice of misusing government offices for selfish motives such as unduly benefitting the self, family members, friends and relatives either in monetary or non-monetary form which harms the larger public good.<\/p>\n

Kautilya\u00a0was also not unaware of corruption in the judicial administration. He prescribed the imposition of varying degrees of fines on judges trying to proceed with a trial without evidence, or unjustly maintaining silence, or threatening, defaming or abusing the complainants, arbitrarily dismissing responses provided to questions raised by the judge himself, unnecessarily delaying the trial or giving unjust punishments.\u00a0\u00a0This shows that there were incidents of judicial pronouncements being biased,\u00a0favoring\u00a0one party to the detriment of others. In an\u00a0atmosphere of corruption prevailing in the judicial administration as well,\u00a0Kautilyaperhaps wanted to ensure that the litigants are encouraged and given voice to air their legitimate grievances. He expected judges to be more receptive to the complaints and be fair in delivering justice.<\/p>\n

Kautilya\u00a0prescribed reliance on an elaborate espionage network for detecting financial misappropriation and judicial impropriety. Spies were recruited for their honesty and good conduct.\u00a0\u00a0They were to keep a watch even over the activities of accountants and clerks for reporting cases of fabrication of accounts (avastara). On successful detection of embezzlement cases,\u00a0Kautilya\u00a0advocated hefty fines to be imposed apart from the confiscation of ill-earned hordes. If a functionary was charged and proved even of a single offence, he was made answerable for all other associated offences related to the case.\u00a0\u00a0Since taxes paid by the people are\u00a0utilized\u00a0for their welfare, any loss of revenue affects the welfare of the society at large. This is precisely the reason why\u00a0Kautilya\u00a0explicitly argued that the fines imposed should be in proportion to the value of work done, the number of days taken, the amount of capital spent and the amount of daily wages\u00a0paid\u00a0at various levels.<\/p>\n

Corruption is so obvious, and yet so mysterious. Even\u00a0Kautilya\u00a0reflected serious concerns about opacity in the operations of the world of the corrupt. Illegal transactions were so shrouded in mist that he compared embezzlers to fish moving under water and the virtual impossibility of detecting when exactly the fish is drinking water.\u00a0\u00a0He also noted that while it is possible to ascertain the movements of bird flying in the sky, it is difficult to gauge the corrupt activities of government officials.<\/p>\n

CHINA<\/strong><\/p>\n

Corruption in China dates back over a thousand years and has been present through countless dynasties. In fact, widespread corruption is often cited as one of the factors that led to the collapse of the Qing Dynasty in the 19th<\/sup>\u00a0century.<\/p>\n

In dynastic China, the implementation and enforcement of laws and regulations were the task of local officials. Their official salary was entirely at their disposal, but they had to finance office expenses, pay their assistants and bestow lavish treatments upon higher ranking state officials, as well as pay them a so-called regular fee\u201d.<\/p>\n

However, the imperial budget allocated to the administration was rather low. Local officials, the prefects, also received a small sum, jang-lien\u00a0jin\u201d, meaning the silver to maintain integrity\u201d, yet it\u00a0didn\u2019t quite prevent them from accepting bribes in just about any form.<\/p>\n

Even though taking bribes was generally considered to be an uncouth custom or bad habit, it was nevertheless a well-known and widely accepted one. In practice it meant that officials at every level required extra payments from their subordinates or citizens under various names.<\/p>\n

It was not unusual that extra fees were charged several times for the same service\u201d resulting in bribery becoming so complex that the central government was simply unable to control the situation. It was also very unclear as to what counted as legal corruption\u201d and what fell outside of that.\u00a0As a result, the labyrinth of bribes and favors, corruption became an integral part of the entire administration. A European traveller in the 18th century described\u00a0Chinese corruption as follows: The man who preserved his integrity is generally considered as incapable or a dreamer. It is not easy to swim against the stream.\u201d<\/p>\n

In this complex system it was only normal that government officials would trade their influence for money. They also formed strong cliques to protect themselves from punishments by state businessmen, officials, military leaders and other high ranking state employees.<\/p>\n

New people entering the administration carried on these traditions because they firmly believed that corruption was a normal facet of the job. According to historical records, less than three out of ten civilservants could\u00a0preserve their integrity.\u00a0China\u2019s emperors were aware of the corruption problem and\u00a0many of them made desperate attempts to eradicate it, but their endeavors were often futile. One of the most successful was the Great Qing\u00a0Legal Code, introduced in 1644 and\u00a0enforced from early 270 years.\u00a0The code specified sanctions against corruption according to the severity of the crime. Depending upon the\u00a0receivedamount of money or the value of gifts, the punishments varied from beatings with a bamboo stick to the death penalty.<\/p>\n

One of the most infamous corrupt state officials was He\u00a0Shen, the prime minister of\u00a0Emperor\u00a0Qianlon.\u00a0He accumulated his wealth during two decades in office. In 1799, he lost the Emperor\u2019s trust and the court ordered an investigation against him.\u00a0Around 1,100 million\u00a0taels\u00a0of silver were discovered when his home was searched, an amount equivalent to the revenue of the Qing government for 15 years. His\u00a0wrongdoings ended when, at the age 49, he was given a court decree to hang himself.<\/p>\n

The Confucian concept of\u00a0renzhi\u00a0or people\u2019s government\u201d largely contributed to widespread corruption throughout China. In Confucians\u2019 view, a true and honest state bureaucrat should be guided by moral principles. Therefore, striving for material wealth was considered inappropriate.\u00a0Wang\u00a0Anshi, the famous Chinese economist of the Song dynasty, wanted to introduce reforms in monetary institutions that would reduce corruption and nepotism, but his ideas were dismissed by the Confucian elite.<\/p>\n

As a result, corruption continued to exist on an even larger scale, involving the court itself and the local elite. In practice it meant that the more important an issue was, the deeper one would need to reach in to his pocket.<\/p>\n

Corruption has left its mark on the Chinese language and culture. Proverbs such as a big rooster eats no small rice\u201d or money falls into the hands office\u201d\u00a0illustrate how corruption was present in\u00a0everyday\u00a0life\u00a0of\u00a0yamen\u00a0secretaries as\u00a0lamb into mouth of the tiger\u201d (yamen\u201d\u00a0= state).Chinese literature also suggests that officials were corrupt and that it was only natural for them to expect bribes and gifts in return for a\u00a0favorabledecision. The long history of corruption in China, moving from dynasty to dynasty, suggests that an honest and morally correct magister was indeed an exception to the rule.<\/p>\n

MESAPOTAMIA<\/strong><\/p>\n

In ancient Mesopotamia,\u00a0Gimil-\u00a0Ninurta, a poor but free man and a citizen of Nippur, seeks to improve his lot. All he has is his goat. Leading the goat by his left hand, he brings it to the residence of the mayor,\u00a0and is made to wait. But when the mayor hears that he has something to offer he is indignant at his slaves. A citizen of Nippur, he says, should be admitted promptly. He sends for\u00a0Gimil-\u00a0Ninurta\u00a0and asks, What is your problem that you bring me an offering?\u201d\u00a0Gimil-\u00a0Ninurta\u00a0says nothing but greets him with his right hand, invokes blessings on him, and\u00a0gives him the goat. The mayor\u00a0announces he will hold a feast. But when the feast is held, all that\u00a0Gimil-\u00a0Ninurta\u00a0receives is a bone and a sinew of the goat and stale beer. He asks the meaning of such treatment. In reply he is beaten on the mayor\u2019s orders. He departs, vowing vengeance. Later,\u00a0Gimil\u00a0-Ninurtavisits the king of the entire country and offers him one\u00a0mina(a measure of weight)\u00a0of gold in return for the use of the royal chariot for a day. The king asks no questions but agrees at once. In the chariot\u00a0Gimil-\u00a0Ninurta\u00a0returns to Nippur, where the mayor receives him as a high official of the realm.\u00a0Installed in the mayor\u2019s residence, he secretly opens the chest he has brought and pretends the\u00a0gold he says was in it has disappeared. He implies that the mayor is guilty of stealing it and gives the mayor three beatings for his crime. The mayor also placates him with a gift of two\u00a0minas\u00a0of gold.\u00a0This story, which appears in Bribes, by John Thomas Noonan\u2014 one of the few authors who has attempted to explore in a thorough and diachronic manner the topic of political corruption over the centuries\u2014 and is known by the title The Poor Man of Nippur,\u201d probably dates from 1500 B.C. It shows how among the peoples of ancient Mesopotamia the law of reciprocity\u2014 the natural rule of quid pro quo\u2014 was strictly respected, whereas any wandering from the straight and narrow path was punished. The misdeed lay not in the act of making an interested gift but rather in breaking with the logic of the exchange: in failing to offer value in exchange for value received. Noonan comments that\u00a0the most serious misdeed lay not in the act of corrupting but in the effect of corruption: breaking one\u2019s word in a society where keeping one\u2019s word The Gift in Antiquity 25 was considered to be a divine characteristic. He cites in this connection a fragment of a hymn to the sun god Shamash, preserved in the library of Ashurbanipal in Nineveh, where we can read the following phrase: Your manifest\u00a0utterance may not be changed.\u201d\u00a0The word\u00a0tatu\u00a0used in the text of Hammurabi, in a section titled The Corrupt Judge,\u201d generically indicates the offering of a subordinate. Offering and corruption therefore trail off one into the other, and a more generalized condemnation of corrupt giving will only arrive later, in the modern age, even while the practice of exchange will in any case remain a constant custom.<\/p>\n

Greece<\/strong><\/p>\n

The great legislator Solon established in the 5th century BC the\u00a0Seisachtheia, i.e. the debt cancellation. As Aristotle writes, just before the announcement of the debt cancellation, he informed his friends to rush and get large loans, which eventually were cleared of any debt, hence making them really rich.\u00a0Themistocles claimed that it has no value to be a leader if you cannot enrich your friends.\u00a0Agisilaos, King of Sparta believed exactly the same thing. \u00a0Even the monuments on the Acropolis were connected to the biggest scandal of abuse during the Golden Century of Pericles (5th century BC). \u00a0The main issues were both; using money from the treasury of the Athenian Alliance by Pericles and the suspicion that Phidias had distorted the gold in the statue of Athena. Plutarch writes that Pericles introduced the “secret funds” by taking 10 talents, an enormous sum for that period. When questioned in\u00a0Pnika\u00a0he answered “I gave them where they were needed”, without explaining further.<\/p>\n

Demosthenes was exiled and imprisoned twice due to corruption charges. The first time he took money of Alexander the Great’s treasurer,\u00a0Arpalo, who took the funds from Babylon and fled to Athens. The second time he took money from the\u00a0Amfises\u00a0in order to cover a scandal at Delphi.\u00a0Arpalos\u00a0had escaped to Athens in order to avoid the wrath of Alexander the Great because he stole the army’s finance and the treasury of Babylon, which had been entrusted to him.\u00a0Finally, Demosthenes was convicted and exiled from Athens in 324 BC for choosing to work with the biggest abuser of his time,\u00a0Arpalo.<\/p>\n

In ancient Greece, the laws and the constitution did not work by divine right but by the right of the people. That is why Pericles was given a trial date,\u00a0although he was never tried, since during that time the Peloponnesian War commenced. Nevertheless, before the temple of Athena Nike began, the auditors looked thoroughly at\u00a0Kalikratis’ designs. As for Phidias, he achieved to demonstrate his innocence in court, however he didn’t escape\u00a0prison. The key reason was his arrogance in immortalizing Pericles and himself on the shield of the goddess Athena.<\/p>\n

Italy<\/strong><\/p>\n

Niccolo\u00a0Machiavelli is\u00a0well\u00a0known as\u00a0one of\u00a0the\u00a0most\u00a0important and\u00a0earliest\u00a0realist\u00a0thinkers\u00a0and promoters.Machiavelli in his work discusses a lot of themes in\u00a0general framework of good state: establishment of a city, rule of law, good and bad\u00a0governor,\u00a0role of religion in society, virtue and corrupt people and\u00a0many others.\u00a0Machiavelli\u2019s thoughts about corrupt people and their\u00a0interdependence with good state.What\u00a0does Machiavelli mean when\u00a0he\u00a0uses the\u00a0termscorrupt\u201d and corruption\u201d.Sometimes, very rarely, he uses corruption\u201d as a synonym of\u00a0bribery\u201d. But in general corruption\u201d and corrupt people\u201d for Machiavelli in this book are\u00a0antonyms of virtue people\u201d; corrupt\u201d people are bad, spoilt citizens that live only for their\u00a0own profit, that don\u2019t respect laws or adopt new laws for become even more corrupt,\u00a0thecorrupt\u00a0society\u201d lives without respect among participants, in such society the rich become\u00a0richer and the poor become poorer; the richest class usurps the power and doesn\u2019t permit to\u00a0good people that will work for entire society benefit come to the power.\u00a0In corrupt societies the power has the strongest and the richest, while the mostmeritorious\u00a0abstained from being candidates from fear.\u201d So the corrupt society becomesworse because people that can improve community don\u2019t have the possibility and opportunity\u00a0to do anything. Such society becomes more corrupt and it seems to be more difficult to\u00a0change the regime.Machiavelli tells us a lot about transformation of corrupt state to a good one.\u00a0He sees\u00a0two various scenarios: impossible and conditionally\u00a0possible. The impossible one, which implies that\u00a0transformation,\u00a0is\u00a0completely difficult.\u00a0Machiavelli states that it is strange\u00a0if someone comes to power using bad means even if he serves for good aims in the\u00a0future. The\u00a0person that is able to use such means for obtain power in the state can use them against\u00a0the people of the state. This question is very complicated from moral point of view. Is man\u00a0still virtue if he behaves as\u00a0a corrupt one?\u00a0no, because it is very difficult to earnauthority\u00a0and very easy to lose it. Even he will make good things\u00a0the way he\u00a0came to power doesn\u2019t allow him to do a lot and govern long for two reasons.<\/p>\n

Juvenal<\/strong><\/p>\n

Satires<\/em>\u00a0and\u00a0collection\u00a0of\u00a0satirical poem\u00a0by\u00a0the\u00a0Latin\u00a0author\u00a0Juvenal\u00a0written in the late 1st\u00a0and early 2nd centuries A D.\u00a0Juvenal is credited with sixteen known poems divided among five\u00a0books:\u00a0all are in the Roman genre of\u00a0satire, which, at its most basic in the time of the author, comprised a wide-ranging discussion of society and social\u00a0mores<\/em>in\u00a0dactylic hexameter.\u00a0The sixth and tenth satires are some of the most renowned works in the collection. The poems are not individually titled, but translators have often added titles for the convenience of readers<\/p>\n

\u00a0Hypocrites\u00a0are Intolerable<\/em><\/p>\n\n\n\n
I get an itch to run off beyond the\u00a0Sarmatians\u00a0and\u00a0the frozen sea,<\/em><\/p>\n

every time those men who pretend to be old-time paragons of virtue<\/em><\/p>\n

and\u00a0live an orgy, dare to spout something about morals.\u201d<\/em><\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

There is no Room in Rome for a Roman<\/em><\/p>\n\n\n\n
What could I do at Rome? I don’t know how to lie;<\/em><\/p>\n

If a book is bad, I am unable to praise it and ask for one;<\/em><\/p>\n

I don\u2019t understand the motions of the stars \u2013 I am neither willing<\/em><\/p>\n

nor able to predict the death of someone\u2019s father; I never inspected the guts<\/em><\/p>\n

of frogs; other men know all about ferrying what the\u00a0adulterers send to brides;<\/em><\/p>\n

nobody is going to be a thief with me as his accomplice,<\/em><\/p>\n

and that right there is why I\u2019m going in no governor\u2019s entourage<\/em><\/p>\n

\u2013 I\u2019m like a cripple, a useless body with a dead right hand.\u201d<\/em><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n

 <\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n

 <\/p>\n

Sri Lanka<\/strong><\/p>\n

Ancient Sri Lanka seems to have refused to accept bribery and corruption as a part of the system. The\u00a0Badulla\u00a0pillar inscription of\u00a0Udaya\u00a0IV records an instance when the public protested to the king regarding corruption. The merchants and householders of the market town of\u00a0Hopitigama\u00a0in\u00a0Sorabora\u00a0district petitioned the king, when the king\u00a0visited the area. They said that they were subject to harassment, extortion, and bribes. The officers delegated by the\u00a0dandanayake\u00a0who was in charge of\u00a0Hopitigama, exacted five hundred instead of the 25\u00a0kalandas\u00a0which was the official payment. The officers accepted presents, had the village surrounded, houses occupied and householders taken away by force. A statute was written on the orders of the king prohibiting these activities and stating that corrupt officers should be reported to the authorities.<\/p>\n

Some stone inscriptions of the late Anuradhapura period have\u00a0It is evident, through these few examples that the phenomenon of corruption is timeless; however it is not a characteristic of one people or nation, but of all of mankind, starting from Adam and Eve. Nevertheless that does not mean that regulations and laws shouldn’t exist in order to prevent and minimize this bad habit.<\/p>\n

been\u00a0categorized as codes of disciplinary rules for the perpetuation of the Buddha\u00a0Sasana. The kings, in order to protect the Buddha\u00a0Sasana\u00a0worked for the purification of the order of the monks when it was beset by corrupt practices. The documentation of regulation of the Buddhist Order by the kings in the form of the rock edicts continued up to the late Anuradhapura period as\u00a0Kathika, which later came to be known as\u00a0Kathikawathas. With the formal introduction of Buddhism to the island in the 3rd century B.C. by the mission led by\u00a0Arahat\u00a0Mahinda, the\u00a0Sangha\u00a0was established in a more organized manner. What we witnessed after that was the rapid expansion of the\u00a0Sanghawith overt royal patronage. The rapid expansion and institutionalization of the\u00a0sangha\u00a0created the need, from time to time, to protect it from deviations, disorders and interpretations. As a result, the enactment of disciplinary rules (Patimokkha) .<\/p>\n

It is evident from the above random selections of corruption in the ancient\u00a0world;the\u00a0phenomenon is everlasting as long as man exists. However the level of corruption varies according to rulers and scholars.<\/p>\n

What we see today in our country is the worst corruption in our history.<\/p>\n

Upali\u00a0Cooray<\/p>\n

Egalawan288@gmail.com<\/a><\/p>\n

Bibliography:-\u00a01)\u00a0History of Ceylon\u00a0(volume 1 part 1)<\/em><\/p>\n

\u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0\u00a0\u00a02)\u00a0Wikipedia<\/em><\/p>\n

\u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 \u00a03)\u00a0Senarath\u00a0Paranawithana<\/em><\/p>\n

\u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 \u00a0 4)\u00a0Chanakya-\u00a0kautilya\u00a0:-\u00a0Ancient history encyclopedia<\/em><\/p>\n

\u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 \u00a05)\u00a0Crime and punishment in ancient Sri Lanka-Kamalika\u00a0Peiris<\/em><\/p>\n

\u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0\u00a0(The\u00a0Island\u201d\u00a0newspaper)<\/em><\/p>\n

\u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a06) Institute of Defense Studies- India<\/em><\/p>\n

\u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 (IDSA issue briefs- internet)<\/em><\/p>\n

\u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a07) Corrupt people and good state in\u201d\u00a0discouses\u201d\u00a0by\u00a0Machiavelli<\/em><\/p>\n

\u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0Nick\u00a0Tyan<\/em><\/p>\n

\u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0\u00a08\u00a0)The\u00a0role of\u00a0Bhikkus\u00a0in ancient Sri Lanka and\u00a0Bhikku\u00a0Katikawat\u00a0in ancient inscriptions.<\/em><\/p>\n

Ranasinghe, S.K.<\/em><\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"

Upali\u00a0Cooray It is not possible to compose\u00a0in detail an essay because the field is vast.\u00a0Therefore\u00a0this attempt is to highlight\u00a0a few random examples of corruption in the ancient world. Ancient man\u2019s\u00a0difference was,\u00a0during the evolutionary process from Ape to man his brain developed more than in other animals.His\u00a0instincts\u00a0as an animal was\u00a0selfish and required survival in a competitive […]<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":1,"featured_media":0,"comment_status":"open","ping_status":"closed","sticky":false,"template":"","format":"standard","meta":{"footnotes":""},"categories":[12],"tags":[],"class_list":["post-69307","post","type-post","status-publish","format-standard","hentry","category-forum"],"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.lankaweb.com\/news\/items\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/69307","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.lankaweb.com\/news\/items\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.lankaweb.com\/news\/items\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/post"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.lankaweb.com\/news\/items\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/1"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.lankaweb.com\/news\/items\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/comments?post=69307"}],"version-history":[{"count":0,"href":"https:\/\/www.lankaweb.com\/news\/items\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/69307\/revisions"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.lankaweb.com\/news\/items\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=69307"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"category","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.lankaweb.com\/news\/items\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/categories?post=69307"},{"taxonomy":"post_tag","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.lankaweb.com\/news\/items\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/tags?post=69307"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}