By Raj Gonsalkorale

Race is a social construct used to categorize humans into groups based on shared physical traits (such as skin colour, hair texture, or facial features) or ancestry. Modern science views race as a system created by society, not as a biological, genetic, or scientific fact. It often carries implications for social hierarchy and power, influencing cultural perceptions and systemic treatment – National Human Genome Research Institute

Sri Lanka’s ancient chronological history, particularly the Sinhala Buddhist history, has generally been taken from the literary records in the Mahavamsa, which recounts Sri Lanka’s history from time Prince Vijaya landed in the island some 2600 years ago, and these accounts then carried forward through an oral tradition for nearly 1000 years before a Buddhist Monk, Venerable Mahanama completed the first written account of the Mahavamsa in 400 AD. Archaeologists however have tended to arrive at historical timelines based on their research findings. To this extent, one could say theirs is a more scientific narrative rather than a literary narrative on the ancient history of the island.

While Archaeologists concur that the Mahavamsa has a high degree of accuracy for later periods based on research, they are of the opinion that its early accounts are more mythical and legendary in the absence of scientific research to support accounts of the early periods. For example, there is no direct archaeological evidence (coins or inscriptions) for a specific “King Vijaya” from the 6th century BCE.  Experts opine that timeline discrepancies exist between the Mahavamsa and Archaeological digs, particularly in the Citadel of Anuradhapura, where using carbon dating to test the timeline of early settlements, have revealed discrepancies. While the Mahāvaṃsa says the city was founded in the 5th or 6th century BCE by Prince Vijaya, carbon dating of pottery and charcoal shows that Anuradhapura was actually a thriving town as far back as 900–1000 BCE, some 500 years prior to Vijaya’s landing.

HISTORY OF HUMAN HABITATION ON SRI LANKA

Earliest possible history of human habitation – While subsequently updated based on advances in dating technology, Archaeologist Dr Siran Deraniyagala had established that the archaeological sites of Pathirajawela and Bundala are southern occurrences of the Iranamadu Formation (IFM), an extensive geological unit characterized by “red latosol” (red coastal sands) and basal gravels, a coastal geological unit that appears in the island’s North and Northwest going back around 125,000 to 200,000 years ago.The Department of Archaeology has noted that the IFM deposits in the North have yielded the “oldest evidence of human habitation,” with some speculative relative dates reaching as far back as 500,000 years. As mentioned, the revised chronology (25,000 BCE) has provided a more modern geochemical position based on the 2024 OSL (Optically Stimulated Luminescence) testing. It suggests the earlier dates were a result of “solar resetting” issues in the quartz and the more recent testing has contested the earlier findings. However, conclusions maybe drawn that some human inhabitations have been there despite the later conclusions as both methods had used non-human being material for testing purposes.

A geneticists view of ancient history – This the DNA Story (60,000–70,000 years ago)which basically takes a look at the blood of people living today and “count back” the mutations suggesting that the ancestors of everyone currently alive in Sri Lanka, left Africa about 60000–70,000 years ago.

History based on scientific testing of human skeletal remains– Done for the first time on human full skeletons and advanced tools found in caves have shown that humans inhabited the island some 38,000 Years Ago which period is referred to as the “Balangoda Man” Phase. 

THE BALANGODA MAN

Actual Archaeological evidence from human skeletal remains and cultural artifacts such as geometric microliths (stone tools) found in the Fa Hien Cave and  Batadombalena have have established that the Balangoda man (Homo sapiens balangodensis) inhabited the country some 30,000 years ago, and is described as the prehistoric original inhabitants of the country. Evidence also shows these ancestors were skilled hunters who used fire and crafted tools from bone and stone. Finds of marine shells in inland caves suggest they maintained active contact or trade routes with coastal regions as far as 40 km away. 

Origins and Migration

• The Land Bridge: For much of the last 500,000 years, Sri Lanka was intermittently connected to India via a land bridge roughly 100 km wide. This connection, now largely submerged as the Adam’s Bridge shoals, allowed for the continuous movement of early human and faunal populations across the continental shelf.
• Out of Africa Timeline: The Balangoda Man’s arrival aligns with major migratory patterns of modern humans departing Africa approximately 60,000 to 70,000 years ago. These early Homo sapiens moved through South Asia, with Sri Lanka serving as a critical point for understanding how they adapted to diverse tropical environments.
• A “Hunters in Transition” Model: Professor Somadeva’s research project, “Hunters in Transition”, posits that the indigenous people didn’t just disappear or get replaced. Instead, the descendants of Mesolithic hunter-gatherers (Balangoda Man) gradually evolved into the structured “Hela” or indigenous society, which included the Yakkha, Naga and Deva tribes. 

Evolution of inhabitants

The main groups who evolved from the original inhabitants, the Balangoda man, are understood to be the Yakkha, Naga, Raksha and Deva groups (collectively referred to as the Hela group) and the Vedda group. The distinction between these groups is generally seen as socio-economic rather than biological:

• The Hela (Yakkha/Naga/Raksha/Dewa):These were the descendants who transitioned into settled life. Professor Somadeva’s findings at sites like Ranchamadama show they developed a “Mountain (Hela) Civilization” with advanced iron-smelting, proto-writing, and complex burial rituals by the 1st millennium BCE.
• The Vedda: These were the descendants who chose to remain in the forests, preserving the hunter-gatherer lifestyle of their Balangoda Man ancestors well into the historical period. 

There is actual archaeological evidence in the form of early Brahmi inscriptions (c. 3rd century BCE to 1st century CE) where individuals identify themselves using these names. For example, inscriptions mention donors named “Naga” and “Deva”.Geographic Names: Ancient names for regions, such as Nagadeepa (the Jaffna peninsula), have been used for nearly 2,000 years, suggesting a long-standing association between certain regions and these tribal identities. From a scientific standpoint, archaeologists generally view these names not as different “species” or biologically distinct races, but as socio-political or totemic tribes:

• Naga: Likely a maritime and mercantile group that used the cobra as a symbol. Archaeological findings like “Naga stones” (cobra-guarded stones) near ancient reservoirs and ports support the idea of a group that held specific cultural and engineering roles. The Naga community habitation had been mainly the coastal areas of the Northwest of the country and closest in proximity to Southern India.
• Yakka: Often associated with iron-smelting and mountain-dwelling. Archaeological evidence of advanced iron-smelting in areas like the Uva province (dating back to 2400 BCE) is sometimes linked to the “Yakka”.
• Raksha and Deva: These are less clearly defined in the physical record. “Raksha” is often a pejorative term used by later chroniclers for forest-dwellers, while “Deva” may have referred to a clan that eventually took on administrative or “god-like” status in folklore. 

Connection between Balangoda Man and the Four Tribes

Archaeologists see a cultural and biological continuum rather than a clean “break” between these groups: 

• The Evolutionary Link: The “Balangoda Man” represents the Mesolithic hunter-gatherer foundation (starting ~48,000 years ago). Over millennia, these populations transitioned into the Early Iron Age (c. 1000–800 BCE).
• Transformation: The tribes known as Yakka and Naga are essentially the Iron Age descendants of the Balangoda Man. As the island’s original inhabitants adopted farming, metalworking, and seafaring, they likely organised into the tribal structures described in the chronicles.
• The Vedda Position: The Vedda are those who maintained the original Balangoda hunter-gatherer lifestyle into modern times, whereas the Yakka and Naga groups were those who modernised and eventually assimilated into the broader Sinhalese and Tamil populations

The Deva (or Dewa) group was one of the four main indigenous clans of ancient Sri Lanka, alongside the Yakkha, Naga, and Raksha. Collectively, these four are often referred to in modern Hela tradition as the Siew Hela (Four Helas). After the arrival of Buddhism in the 3rd century BCE, the distinct tribal identities of the Deva, Yakkha, Naga, and Raksha began to fade. They were largely absorbed into the broader Sihala and later Sinhala identity. The Adivasi (Vedda) people are the indigenous, forest-dwelling, first inhabitants of Sri Lanka, known traditionally as hunters-gatherers with a history extending back to the prehistoric era, long before the 6th-century BCE arrival of the Indo-Aryans. They are closely linked to the island’s earliest human residents, sharing genetic ties with indigenous groups in southern India and Southeast Asia. Today, they are concentrated in regions like Dambana and are navigating the transition from a traditional forest lifestyle to modern society. 

Origin of the Sinhalese – A traditional point of view

Sihala (also spelled Sīhaḷa) is actually the original Pali and Prakrit name for the same community and island. While “Sinhala” is the modern Sanskritized form commonly used today, “Sihala” is the term found in ancient religious and historical texts. Professor Rajasoma, a well-known Sri Lankan Archaeologist whose work has fundamentally challenged the traditional timelines of Sri Lankan history, suggests that an advanced, indigenous civilization existed on the island long before the arrival of Prince Vijaya (c. 543 BCE). He mentions the “Hela” Theory – Often called the Siv-Hela (Four Helas), which suggests that before Prince Vijaya arrived, the island was home to four tribes—the Yaksha, Raksha, Naga, and Deva.

According to this view, these groups merged to form the Hela (later Sihala) people, long before North Indian influence became dominant. Professor Somadeva argues that the Yakkha, Naga, Deva, and Raksha clans mentioned in the Mahavamsa chronicles were not mythical beings, but actual indigenous human communities. 

He suggests the name “Sihala” (or Hela) evolved from these indigenous groups merging together. He discovered a cave inscription in Tamketiya containing the word “Yagasha“ (belonging to Yakshas), which he uses to link historical chronicles with archaeological reality. 

Impact on History

His work shifts the “Sihala” origin story from a 2,500-year-old immigrant tale to a 4,000-to-6,000-year-old indigenous evolution. He focuses on the “cognitive advances” of these early people, showing they were a resilient, trading society with their own technological and religious practices before any external arrival. Archaeological evidence suggests that a significant prehistoric and proto-historic civilisation inhabited the Knuckles Mountain Range (historically known as Malaya Rata or Giri Divaina). Recent research, including surveys and excavations, supports the presence of an advanced community in this region long before the traditional historic period. Local residents have traditionally and historically called this area Dumbara Kanduvetiya (“Mist-laden Mountain Range”), while ancient texts refer to it as a stronghold for indigenous tribes. The modern name “Knuckles” was actually assigned much later by British surveyors who thought the peaks looked like a clenched fist. The area surrounding the Knuckles Mountain Range is indeed home to what researchers like Professor Raj Somadeva identify as a “Sihala” or Hela civilization dating back several millennia. His research posits that the Knuckles was a major hub for an advanced, mountain-dwelling civilization that existed long before the traditional dates of recorded history.

The Naga people and theories on ethnic roots

Dravidian Links: Some historians, such as H. Parker, suggest the Nagas were an offshoot of the Nayars of Kerala, sharing a common culture of serpent worship. Other researchers argue that the Nagas were a Tamil-speaking tribe that eventually assimilated into the broader population in the north and other parts of the island. The archaeological records in Northern Sri Lanka provides concrete evidence of the Naga people’s existence and their deep cultural ties to South India. These sites reveal a society that was not isolated but acted as a bridge for trade and religious exchange between the island and the mainland. Amongst these are, Kandarodai (Kadiramalai) located inland from Jaffna, this site was likely the ancient capital of Naka-Nadu. Excavations have revealed a cluster of small stupas and Black and Red Ware pottery, a hallmark of the South Indian megalithic culture. Roman and Chinese coins found here confirm its role as a major mercantile hub, Anaikoddai, a megalithic burial site in Jaffna where the famous Anaikoddai Seal was discovered in 1981. This 3rd-century BCE soapstone seal features a bilingual inscription with megalithic graffiti and Tamil-Brahmi script reading “Ko Veta” (King Veta). This find is critical as it provides firm proof of local chieftaincy and literacy during the Naga period, Nainativu (Nagadeepa), an island off the Jaffna peninsula mentioned in both the Mahavamsa and the Tamil epic Manimekalai. It is home to the Nagadeepa Vihara, marking where Buddha reportedly settled a dispute between Naga kings Chulodara and Mahodara. Artifacts like the Naga guard stones and idols found here showcase the fusion of serpent worship and Buddhism. It is very plausible that the Naga community and their descendants were the forebearers of the ethnic group that evolved as the Tamils of Sri Lanka.

Sinhala and Tamil genetic links

Recent genetic and archaeological studies have clarified the complex origins of Sri Lanka’s ethnic groups, confirming that the Sinhalese and Tamils are more genetically similar to each other than to any other South Asian population. Professor Raj Somadeva has co-authored and contributed to research that highlights these shared roots through several key lenses. Both groups share a significant common genetic foundation that differs from both North and South Indian populations, suggesting a unique Sri Lankan genetic identity developed over millennia of isolation and interaction on the island. 

Conclusion

The research information that is available on the origin and evolution of inhabitants of the island is extensive and cannot be covered in one article. There is clear evidence that the island was inhabited by civilised community groups for thousands of years, beginning with the scientifically established Balangoda man phase of history. From a contemporary point of view, the ethnic and religious divides that occurred are historically very recent, and from an ancient historical point of view, unfortunate and unnecessary. It is clear from an archaeological and scientific point of view that the island’s inhabitants had one primary lineage, the Balangoda man, while descendent community group mixing obviously occurred from within and from outside over time. In this respect, the genetic studies that have confirmed that the Sinhalese and Tamils are more genetically similar to each other than to any other South Asian population is an interesting unifying factor that could guide the future of the country.