KAMALIKA PIERIS
Buddhism
was accepted with enthusiasm in
the north Indian republics of the Ganges region. People took robes in
considerable numbers. In the lifetime of the Buddha there were 29 monasteries. There
were 18 at Rajagaha, 4 at Vesali, 3 at Kosala and 4 at Kosambi. Over time, it
became clear that a set of rules governing the conduct of the Bhikkhus were
needed. These rules became the Vinaya Pitaka.
The Vinaya rules were not commandments ordered
from above. They were rules made by the Buddha for practical reasons. Most were
to enforce discipline in the order, but they also took into account the ease
and comfort of the bhikkhu. The Vinaya rules developed gradually, over time, but they did not develop haphazardly. By the
time Baddali sutta was preached there was a fairly large set of rules, observed
Ven. Bellanwila Wimalaratana in his book A
critical study of the Sri Lankan development of the rules of Vinaya (Sarasavi,
2018)
Vinaya rules did not remain static. They were
amended when necessary. Buddha made five amendments to the Vinaya for
Avanti. He said higher ordination could be conferred with four bhikkhus, not
eight, the bhikkhus could wear sandals
with thick soles as the soil was black, they could bathe regularly, sheepskin and
goatskin could be used as coverlets, and robes could be accepted on behalf of a
monk who had left the district and the robe need not reach the monk concerned
within the prescribed ten days. Ven.
Wimalaratana observed that while the Buddha relaxed rules when he found it
helpful for the monks, he also tightened rules when he found that there were laxities.
In a Vinaya inquiry, the monk concerned was
given a hearing. No judgment could be passed without his presence. He had the right to cross examine, and defend
himself, raising legal issues. Bhikkhus had sometimes offered prize excuses. When
charged with having engaged in sexual intercourse, one monk said he had taken
off his robe, and another said he had done it naked.
Each school of Buddhist thought had its own Vinaya,
observed Ven. Wimalaratana. There
were at least 18 other schools of Buddhism, if not more by 3rd
Buddhist Council and these would have had their own vinayas. Most of these Vinayas
are lost, but some fragments were found in Eastern Turkistan and Nepal. The Gilgit manuscript, containing the
Pratimoksa of the Mahasangika School has been published. Further vinayas are preserved in Chinese and
Tibetan versions. The Mahayana does not possess a separate Vinaya. Mahayana Vinaya
is contained in the Suttas itself.
With the passing away of Buddha the Vinaya gradually began to assume a rigid form. The First Buddhist Council, held at Rajgir soon after the Buddha’s death, decided not
to repeal any rules. The Theravada tradition faithfully holds that the whole
Vinaya Pitaka was compiled and
recited at the First Buddhist Council,
observed Ven. Wimalaratana. But the present Vinaya Pitaka was not in existence
at the time of First Council. Vinaya Pitaka was in an initial stage of evolution,
during the First Council he said. The Second Council, held a hundred years
later at Vaisali, was no better. There were sharp differences about the Vinaya
rules. The matter was hotly debated and a committee appointed to look into the
items under dispute.
Arahat Mahinda brought into Sri Lanka the Theravada doctrine approved by the Third
Buddhist Council held at Pataliputra in the reign of king Dharmasoka. This
early Buddhism is glimpsed today in the Sutra Pitaka said Ven. Wimalaratana.The
Vinaya, including amendments and the Vinaya commentarial tradition were
brought in. The commentaries came in written form, said Malalasekera.
The Sinhala Sangha produced a vast
commentarial literature on the Vinaya, with useful interpretations of the
Vinaya rules. Buddhagosha used these
Vinaya commentaries, in his Samantapasadika and Kanakavitarani. Sinhala texts on Vinaya such as Sikavalanda
and Sikha Valanda Vinisa shows that Vinaya underwent considerable development
in Sri Lanka, said Ven. Wimalaratana.
The Vinaya Pitaka consists of Patikmokkha,
Suttavibhanga, Khanadhaka and Parivara. Pattimokha is the code of rules,
Suttavibhanga explains the rules and Khandhaka section dealt with new
situations and changing conditions. The Parivara, consisting of 19 chapters, is
a digest of the earlier parts of the Vinaya Pitaka. It does not contain
anything new.
The Vinaya Pitaka introduced to Sri Lanka did
not contain the Parivara, said Ven. Wimalaratana. The Parivara section is a
later addition. It is believed to have been compiled by a Sri Lanka bhikkhu in
the early Anuradhapura period. Oliver Abeynayake said that the Parivara section
of the Vinaya is not identical to that brought in by Mahinda. Sri Lanka has
added to it.
The Theravada school thought that the Vinaya
should be maintained and protected at all costs. Sri Lanka Buddhists also
thought this. For them, the strict observance of the Vinaya was one of the main
qualities of a good bhikkhu. This is one of the reasons why the forest monks
were highly esteemed over those who were village dwelling, observed Ven.
Wimalaratana.
The Sangha frequently needed purification,
since there was no central authority and no hierarchy of control. Katikavatas
to cleanse the Sangha started in Sri Lanka in the late Anuradhapura period.
First there were vihara katikavata, such as the inscription of Mahinda V, Kaludiya Pokuna inscription of Sena IV and Puliyankulam
inscription of Udamahaya. Udamahaya was first viceroy under Dappula IV. He
ascended the throne as Udaya III.
Then came Sasana katikavat which applied to
the whole Sangha. These started in the
Polonnaruwa period and continued into the Udarata period. The first Katikavat was
the Katikavata of Parakrama bahu I known also as Galvihara inscription. This
was followed by Hatadage inscription of Nissanka Malla, Dambedeni Katikavata of
Parakarama bahu II, katikavata of Parakrama
bahu VI, katikavata of Kirti Sri Rajasinha and Katikavata of Rajadhi rajasinha. Vijayabahu III also had issued a Katikavata.
This has not been discovered.
Katikavat were initiated by the king. The
rules were formulated by senior monks, the king gave his assent and the Katikavata
became binding on the Sangha. The
katikavata was like a royal decree. It was
compulsory for all monks.
The initiative for the katikavata of Parakrama
bahu I came from the king himself. The rules were by Udumbara giri Maha Kassapa
thera .
The Katikavata started with a preamble giving the reasons for the
katikavata. Then came 27 rules, mainly
on the day to day behavior of monks including their daily routine. All monks had to meditate every day. This
was compulsory.
Dambadeni Katikavata was also preamble and
text. The Preamble had wealth of information
on the declining state of Sangha. This
katikavata created two separate headships, (Mahathera), for Gramavasi and
Aranya vasi bhikkhus, with a Mahimi above both. Below them came the heads of the 8 ayatanas,
and deputies, followed by the principals of Pirivenas. None of these offices
are in the Vinaya.
The age limit to enter the order now became 12
years for grama vasi and 13 years for forest dwelling monks. Higher ordination could not take place where
the bhikkhus wanted it, only with approval and consent of king. The quorum
needed for ecclesiastical matters were amended. What was earlier carried out by
4 bhikkhus was now to be carried out by 8 bhikkhus. What had been done by 20
was now to be carried out by 30. This was to ensure that there was a minimum of
monks of unblemished character in it, said Ven. Wimalaratana.
The katikavata also ruled on the behavior of
Bhikkhus. Monks must walk in slow, unhurried manner and must abstain from
laughing aloud. Monks cannot use harsh speech to laymen, or refer to their
pedigree and caste. Even a servant in
the temple cannot be subject to such treatment. If so monk must apologize. Bhikkhus had been composing flattering poems
for lay people to get them to donate to the temple. This was prohibited. Bhikkhus
cannot sell excess gifts. They cannot teach children of householders, they
cannot teach poetry and drama and they
should not perform the exorcism duties of Kapuvas.
Ven Wimalaratana observed that, Vinaya rules
were not sufficient to deal with the practical issues faced by the viharas. The
monasteries had become extensive landowners, thanks to huge endowments of cash,
land, tanks, paddy fields, villages. Sangha had to manage these lands and
fields and villages. Large scale
economic management and managing peasants are not included in the Vinaya pitaka. Vinaya pitaka rules were
insufficient for this. Vinaya had blanket rules for opulence, but that was insufficient.
Special rules were needed now.
Slab inscriptions erected in vihara premises
tried to remedy this. Anuradhapura slab inscription of Kassapa V, Virankurarama
slab inscription of Dappula V, Abhayagiri inscription of Mahinda IV and the
second Vessagiri inscription, contain
various rules and regulations for conducting the affairs of that vihara, their
properties and workers. Also for
admission to the order, settlements of disputes in monasteries and the role of
government officer in settling disputes.
The inscription of Kassapa V says, when
admitting a new monk into the order, there must be unanimous agreement. Gifts should not be accepted when admitting
someone into the order. Quarrelsome bhikkhus and those who violate the Vinaya
should be expelled and exiled to India. Abhayagiri
inscription said if the money provided for repairs to the monastery is
insufficient, monks must use the money allocated for their personal needs.
Buddhism became popular in north India, very
quickly and young men started to take to robes. This did not please everyone.
Parents complained, accusing Buddha of breaking up families, making families
devoid of sons and making young wives widows by encouraging young men to join
the Maha Sangha.
Therefore an alternative had to be found. The ‘lay
disciple’ was created. Historians trace the creation of lay followers to the
family of the bhikkhu Yasa. The young man, Yasa, son of a rich gild master in
Benares, found his way to Gautama Buddha and eventually became a disciple. Yasa’s
father went in search of his son, and ended up as the first lay disciple.
Buddha
was invited by Yasa’s father for alms at his house the next day and with this
started the growth of lay followers. At the start they were not considered a
component of Buddhist society. They were like admirers, providing the basic
needs of the ordained members. They were enthusiastic but did not have any
particular practices to follow or any formal duty to perform.
As time passed the lay followers wanted to be
formerly recognized as followers of the Buddha with a practice approved by the
Buddha himself. They also desired a particular goal to aspire for. Vyaggapajja
sutta of Anguttara nikaya described how some members of the Koliyna clan headed
by Digajanu made this request.
Buddha did so. He gave a series of actions to
follow while remaining in lay life, and the possibility of a good future life. This
consisted of 8 items, of which 4 were
for this life and 4 were for the next. The lay followers had thus opted for the
lesser goal of continuing samsara life, hoping for a better destiny in the
future.
This makes an important juncture in the
practice of Buddhism, observed Ven. Wimalaratana. The original aim was to put
an end to dukkha, end of Samsaric existence. But lay followers opted for a
lesser goal. Buddha agreed and approved the practice.
This was the best option to keep the lay community
on the right track with the possibility of changing lanes in the future and
attain final liberation. This approach provides a graduated practice, of the
path of Buddhism, to suit the different personalities of the practitioners. In
the relaxed practice approved for the laity, realization of NIbbana is not
completely discarded. It is postponed for a future date.
The lay follower of the Buddha were
enthusiastic, they were more in number than the ordained followers. They came from all levels of society, royalty
to the lowest. The prospect of gaining
good and happiness in this life as well as the next, they found very
attractive.
A common aspiration was the accumulation of
merit. Supporting those ordained was one way of accumulating merit. It was also
an easy way. So they lavished their generosity on them. Now supporting the
Sangha turned into a duty of the laity and in turn the Sangha became the guides
of the laity, directing them on the proper path. The Sangha ranked above the
laity.
This led to extremes in some cases. Spending
excessively on dana to the Sangha, specially by wealthy persons, otherwise
known to be utterly stingy, was ridiculed in Sri Lanka as ‘giving in this birth
to get it back in the next’. I have
personally heard this said in the 1950s at a dane in Panadura.
The Sangha also did not like to eat too much rich food. In 2012, Buddhist
monks had told the Health Ministry in
Sri Lanka to advise the Buddhists to prepared proper alms for monks, as they
were getting diabetes and heart problems due to the rich food they were given. The
Danas contained great quantities of oil, starch, salt and sugar. They wanted a
nutritious meal which did not have these.
Ven Beligalle Dhammajoti observed that during British
rule, Buddhism was presented as an ‘other worldly’ religion, which was not
rooted in everyday living. It was so
sublime that ordinary people could not practice it. That is incorrect. Buddhism
is not an ‘other worldly’ religion. And
it is not asocial. Buddhism is not an
other worldly religion. And it is not a-social. Sigalovada sutta explicitly explained the
family and social relations, and gives a set of instructions and ethical
guideline that pertain to social living.
During British rule, non-Buddhists also said
that Buddhist philosophy is interest only in higher morality and ignore the
social and economic welfare. This is incorrect. Kutadanta sutta explains the
way of developing a country with proper planning and the nature of
socio-economic process. These ideas, it should be noted were propounded in the
6 century BC. In Agganna sutta there is
a theory of the origin of classes. Chakkavattisihanada sutta explains poverty,
revolution, crime and the reasons for those social ills.
Gunadasa Amarasekera thought that Buddha’s
interest was in social change, he notes that a large part of Buddha’s major
preaching is meant for the layman and not for those who have renounced lay
life. Most of the steps in the Ariya astangika margaya are meant to be followed
by the layman.
Rajitha P
Kumara writing on early Buddhist philosophy
(Economic Review, Peoples Bank, 2011) observed that Buddhism recognized
the mental and physical needs of human beings. According to Agganna sutta the
fundamental human needs are reproduction, existence and protection.
Buddhism
recognized basic needs such as subsistence, economic stability, education,
social interaction, mental and physical health, human dignity and social
status. Kutadanta, Agganna and
Mahasuddassana sutta focus much attention on the economic condition of
individuals and advice is given for the fulfillment of economic realities by
the state.
Buddhist gave
equal importance to all the sections of society. In the Pali discourses much
emphasis is made of cultivation agriculture, movement service, business
ventures and employment. The hoarding of wealth was condemned.
Buddhism emphasizes the appeasement of the divided sections of
society by building a harmonious and cordial relationship among the conflicting
sections of society. It is necessary to
be responsive to the need and expectation of others and to have a regard and respect
for them. This sort of responsible social behavior is known as samacariya,
observed Rajitha.
A system of
good governance was needed in human society primarily for the maintenance of
justice and peace. There should be a good system of law (justice) and order
(peace) above everything. . It is the responsibility of any government to
create a harmonious atmosphere in which justice and peace are enjoyed. (Concluded)
